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社会交换理论 Social exchange theory is a social psychological and sociological perspective that explains social change and stability as a process of negotiated exchanges between parties. Social exchange theory posits that all human relationships are formed by the use of a subjective cost-benefit analysis and the comparison of alternatives. The theory has roots in economics, psychology and sociology. Social exchange theory is tied to rational choice theory and on the other hand to structuralism, and features many of their main assumptions. [edit] Important works American sociologist George Caspar Homans is usually credited with the consolidation of the foundations of Social Exchange Theory. Homans’s article entitled “Social Behavior as Exchange” (Homans 1958) is viewed as the seminal work on this theory. Works by Richard Emerson, Peter M. Blau (Blau 1964), Peter Ekeh, and Karen Cook are also important and often reference Homans, as do many other articles and books on the subject John Thibaut and Harold Kelley are two social psychologists who further developed the theory of social exchange. They proposed (Thibaut & Kelley 1959) the following reasons that make people to engage in a social exchange: anticipated reciprocity; expected gain in reputation and influence on others altruism and perception of efficacy direct reward. Another important work is Mark L. Knapp’s Social Intercourse: From Greeting to Goodbye (Knapp 1978). In this work, Knapp specifically defines stages of relationship development, including initiation, experimentation and bonding. In addition, Gerald Miller and Mark Steinberg’s book, Between People, added to the theory by noting the differences in the types of information we have about one another: cultural, sociological and psychological (Miller & Steinberg 1975). [edit] Critiques Katherine Miller outlines several major objections to or problems with the social exchange theory as developed from early seminal works (Miller 2005): The theory reduces human interaction to a purely rational process that arises from economic theory. The theory favors openness as it was developed in the 1970s when ideas of freedom and openness were preferred, but there may be times when openness isn’t the best option in a relationship. The theory assumes that the ultimate goal of a relationship is intimacy when this might not always be the case. The theory places relationships in a linear structure, when some relationships might skip steps or go backwards in terms of intimacy. It also is strongly seated in an individualist mindset, which may limit its application in and description of collectivist cultures. [edit] Applications Currently, Social Exchange Theory materializes in many different situations with the same idea of the exchange of resources. Humans once summarized the theory by stating: Social behavior is an exchange of goods, material goods but also non-material ones, such as the symbols of approval or prestige. Persons that give much to others try to get much from them, and persons that get much from others are under pressure to give much to them. This process of influence tends to work out at equilibrium to a balance in the exchanges. For a person in an exchange, what he gives may be a cost to him, just as what he gets may be a reward, and his behavior changes less as the difference of the two, profit, tends to a maximum ("Theories Used in Research"). Other applications that developed include fields such as anthropology, as evidenced in an article by Harumi Befu, which discusses cultural and social ideas and norms such as gift-giving and marriage. 社会交换理论 社会学领域 当代西方社会学理论流派之一。产生于50年代末期的美国。交换理论最初是针对结构功能主义提出的，在理论和方法上具有实证主义、自然主义和心理还原主义的倾向。它强调对人和人的心理动机的研究，批判那种只从宏观的社会制度和社会结构或抽象的社会角色上去研究社会的作法；在方法论上倡导个人是社会学研究的根本原则；认为人类的相互交往和社会联合是一种相互的交换过程。这是对美国心理学家B.F.斯金纳的行为主义心理学、功能主义的文化人类学和功利主义的经济学的全面综合。 社会交换论的基本研究范畴和概念包括价值、最优原则、投资、奖励、代价、公平和正义等。主要代表人物有美国社会学家G.C.霍曼斯、P.M.布劳和R.埃默森。霍曼斯是交换理论的创始人。他提出了一组普遍性命题：①成功命题。一个人的某种行为能得到相应的奖赏，他就会重复这一行动；某一行动获得奖赏愈多，重复活动的频率也随之增多；获得的奖赏愈快，重复活动的可能性就愈大。②刺激命题。相同的刺激可能会带来相同或相似性行为。如某人过去在某种情况下的活动得到了奖赏或惩罚，而在出现相同的情况时，他就会重复或不再重复此种活动。③价值命题。如果某种行为的后果对一个人越有价值，那么，他就越有可能去重复同样的行动。④剥夺与满足命题。某人（或团体）重复获得相同奖赏的次数愈多，那么，这一奖赏对该人（或团体）的价值就愈小。⑤攻击与赞同命题。该命题包括两方面：一是当个人的行动没有得到期待的奖赏或者受到了未曾预料到的惩罚时，就可能产生愤怒的情绪，从而出现攻击性行为；二是当个人的行动得到预期的奖赏，甚至超过期待值，或者没有遭到预期的惩罚时，他就会高兴，就会赞同这种行为。霍曼斯将 5个命题看成是一组“命题系列”，强调它们之间相互联系的重要性，并认为只要将5个命题综合起来,就能够解释一切社会行为。霍曼斯指出，利己主义、趋利避害是人类行为的基本原则，由于每个人都想在交换中获取最大利益，结果使交换行为本身变成一种相对的得与失。对个人来说，投资的大小与利益的多少基本上是公平分布的。 布劳的交换理论是从社会结构的原则出发考察人与人之间的社会交换过程，其理论目标既想克服功能主义忽视研究人的理论缺陷，又想弥补霍曼斯理论只局限于微观层次方面的不足。布劳的理论方法是从描述交换过程及其在微观层次上的影响开始，再从群体层次上升到制度与社会的宏观层次。他认为，社会交换关系存在于关系密切的群体或社区中，是建立在相互信任的基础之上的。社会交换是一种有限的活动，它指个人为了获取回报而又真正得到回报的自愿性活动。布劳还区分了经济交换与社会交换、内在奖赏和外在奖赏的差别，引入了权力、权威、规范和不平等的概念，使交换理论在更大的范围内解释社会现象。布劳的社会交换理论从微观到宏观，系统地追溯了交换现象的各种发展过程及其影响，从而形成一种归纳过程取向的社会结构理论。 继布劳之后，对交换理论作出重要贡献的还有埃默森等人。埃默森运用严密的数理模型和网络分析，阐述社会结构及其变化、社会交换的基本动因和制度化过程，在方法论上进一步充实了交换理论的理论体系。 本文来源：https://www.dywdw.cn/27535d8102d276a200292e65.html
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2022-12-28
